- Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism were the three most influential belief systems in ancient China.
- Legalism, a strict philosophy of state power, formed the basis of government during the Qin dynasty.
- Chinese folk religion and mythology coexisted and blended with the major philosophical traditions.
- As a major trading power, ancient China was also home to Islam, Judaism, Christianity, and other foreign faiths.
- Chinese religious life was highly inclusive, and people often practiced several traditions at the same time.
Most people know the roles of Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism in ancient China. Less well known is that, as a major trading power, China was also shaped by many other faiths, including Judaism and Islam.
Read on to explore the diverse field of religion in ancient China, from homegrown philosophies to imported world religions. Understanding these belief systems is one of the best ways to make sense of Chinese festivals, family values, art, and everyday customs.
This cultural background is also invaluable for language students. If your goal is to Learn Chinese in China, knowing the stories behind temples, holidays, and proverbs will make your studies far more meaningful.
01 What were the main religions in ancient China?
Ancient China was home to several major belief systems rather than a single dominant religion. The most influential were Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism, often called the "three teachings," or 三教 (sānjiào).
Alongside these traditions, Legalism shaped how the state was governed, while folk religion and mythology shaped daily life. Foreign religions such as Islam, Judaism, and Christianity later arrived via the Silk Road and maritime trade routes.
Crucially, these systems were rarely exclusive. It was common for one person to honor Confucian values, visit Buddhist temples, and consult Taoist practices all at once.
02 Confucianism in ancient China: beliefs and influence
Confucianism, known as 儒家思想 (Rújiā sīxiǎng), is the system of thought that has had the most profound influence on Chinese culture and society. It emphasizes family relationships, education, and the importance of rituals.
Confucianism was founded by Confucius, or 孔子 (Kǒngzǐ), a civil servant and teacher from Shandong Province who lived from 551 to 479 BCE. His teachings survive today in classic texts and in many well-known Confucius quotes that are still recited in modern China.
The classic Confucian texts, known as the Four Books and Five Classics, formed the cornerstone of the Chinese educational system for hundreds of years. Students were required to demonstrate mastery of Confucian doctrines when taking part in the imperial examinations, or 科举考试 (kējǔ kǎoshì), which were used to select government officials in ancient China.
Filial piety: the foundation of Confucian society
Many of Confucius' teachings focus on how to organize a harmonious society based on the family as its fundamental unit. According to Confucian thought, relationships within the family should be based on filial piety, or 孝 (xiào), which means that younger family members must respect, honor, and obey their parents, older relatives, and ancestors.
The relationship between parents and children was just one of the 5 cardinal relationships, or 五伦 (wǔlún), that made up the traditional Confucian social hierarchy. These relationships included father and son, husband and wife, older brother and younger brother, friend and friend, and ruler and ruled.
Confucius believed that if everyone fulfilled their assigned roles, the harmony established within the family would extend to all of society. Loyal and filial sons, he reasoned, would also become loyal and filial officials.
Even the ancient Chinese legal system was based on the Confucian hierarchy. Punishments were more or less severe depending on the relationship between the offender and the victim.
The junzi: Confucius' ideal gentleman
Confucian ideas about a virtuous life are embodied in the concept of the junzi, or 君子 (jūnzǐ), the ideal gentleman. Junzi were expected to display the five constant virtues: benevolence (仁 rén), righteousness (义 yì), ritual propriety (礼 lǐ), wisdom (智 zhì), and trustworthiness (信 xìn).
Confucius strongly emphasized both study and putting what one has studied into practice. Becoming a junzi was the ultimate goal of self-cultivation, and Confucius was optimistic about every person's potential for self-improvement.
This Confucian emphasis on education can still be seen in modern China today. It echoes through many Chinese idioms and proverbs about learning that students encounter from a young age.
03 Legalism in ancient China: law, power, and the Qin dynasty
Legalism, or 法家 (Fǎjiā), is another ancient system of thought that has had an outsized impact on Chinese society, most notably in the formation of a strong bureaucracy. Echoes of Legalist thought can be found in the modern emphasis on creating a society built on the rule of law, or 法治社会 (fǎzhì shèhuì).
Legalism developed during China's Warring States period (475–221 BCE). It then formed the basis of government during China's first imperial dynasty, the Qin (221–207 BCE).
What did the Legalists believe?
The Legalists believed that people are inherently selfish. In their view, social stability could not be achieved by relying on common people to be virtuous and loyal to their rulers.
Instead, the Legalists advocated strong state control and absolute obedience of subjects to their rulers. To achieve this vision, they developed innovative management and administrative techniques in hopes of building an ideal bureaucracy.
The Legalists also pushed for a rigid, impersonal system of laws that punished or rewarded behaviors universally, regardless of the relationship between offender and victim. For Legalists, the state's prosperity and military strength mattered more than ordinary people's welfare, drawing later comparisons to Machiavellianism and Realpolitik.
Legalism vs. Confucianism: why Legalism declined
For a time, Confucianism and Legalism were competing philosophies of government. During the Qin dynasty, Confucian scholars were executed and their books destroyed in an episode known as the burning of books and the burial of scholars.
The Qin dynasty's heavy-handed law enforcement made Legalism extremely unpopular. During the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), Legalism was suppressed and eventually abandoned in favor of Confucianism.
04 Taoism (Daoism): origins, beliefs, and the concept of wu wei
Taoism, or 道教 (Dàojiào), also called Daoism, is another important ancient Chinese philosophical and religious tradition. It continues to have a significant influence on Chinese society today.
Who founded Taoism?
Laozi, or 老子 (Lǎozi), is often credited as the founder of Taoism. Many of the belief system's basic tenets are laid out in the 4th-century BCE Tao Te Ching, a classic text attributed to him.
Many Taoist beliefs and traditions probably predate Laozi, however, with some tracing their roots back to prehistoric folk religions. One example is the concept of yin and yang, which plays an important part in Taoist cosmology and appears in the Tao Te Ching even though it did not originate with Taoism.
Today, the yin yang symbol represents the balance between yin (dark, receptive, female energy) and yang (bright, active, male energy). The same idea of balancing energies underpins feng shui, another Taoist-influenced practice still popular across the Chinese-speaking world.
In addition to the Tao Te Ching, the other foundational text of Taoism is the Zhuangzi, a book of stories and anecdotes with Taoist themes. Taoism gained official state recognition during the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE), when the ruling family claimed descent from Laozi and added Taoist texts to the imperial examinations.
Wu wei: the Taoist art of going with the flow
Taoism emphasizes harmony between humans and the natural world, regulated by an indefinable spiritual force called the dao, or 道 (dào), sometimes translated as "the way." Taoists teach that the best way to live a life of contentment is to be flexible and follow the natural flow of the universe.
Since trying to exert one's will on the universe only disrupts its natural harmony, Taoists practice a philosophy of non-action known as wu wei, or 无为 (wúwéi). Taoist teachings often describe this philosophy using water metaphors: water may not seem strong, but it overcomes obstacles by simply flowing around or through them.
Taoist teachings also emphasize three virtues collectively known as the Three Treasures, or 三宝 (sānbǎo). These are compassion (慈 cí), frugality (俭 jiǎn), and humility (不敢为天下先 bù gǎn wéi tiānxià xiān).
Zhuangzi's butterfly dream: Taoism and what can be known
Today, one of the most famous Taoist stories is a fable from the Zhuangzi about a philosopher who dreamed he was a butterfly. In the story, Zhuang Zhou dreams he is a butterfly, flitting about happily, with no knowledge of being Zhuang Zhou.
When he suddenly wakes, he is unmistakably Zhuang Zhou again. Yet he no longer knows whether he is a man who dreamt he was a butterfly, or a butterfly now dreaming that he is a man.
This story expresses a deep philosophical skepticism about what can be known about the world. Such skepticism is a common theme in the Zhuangzi, which encourages readers to question fundamental concepts like right and wrong, good and bad.
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05 Buddhism in ancient China: how it arrived and what Buddhists believe
Buddhism, or 佛教 (Fójiào), is thought to have been founded by Siddhartha Gautama in India sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE. As Buddhism spread throughout Asia, multiple branches developed, including Mahayana, Theravada, and Tibetan Buddhism.
Buddhism arrived in China via the Silk Road sometime during the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE). The most commonly practiced form in China today is Chinese Buddhism, which includes a mixture of Buddhist and Taoist practices.
Core Buddhist beliefs: karma, rebirth, and nirvana
In general, Buddhism teaches that human beings are trapped in a cycle of earthly suffering caused by their transitory desires. Buddhists also believe they are caught in an ongoing cycle of rebirth, which can only be broken through the accumulation of good karma.
By following the teachings of the Buddha, especially the Noble Eightfold Path, Buddhists are taught that they can escape the cycle of desire, suffering, and rebirth to achieve enlightenment, or nirvana. These core teachings are encapsulated in The Four Noble Truths, or 四谛 (sìdì).
How Buddhism influenced Chinese art and literature
Buddhism has had a deep influence on Chinese culture, especially the arts, where Buddhist imagery often figures as a central theme. For example, the stunning Mogao Caves are a treasure trove of Buddhist art created by generations of artists and pilgrims traveling along the Silk Road.
Buddhism has likewise deeply influenced Chinese literature. Journey to the West, arguably the most famous of China's Four Great Classical Novels, is the fanciful account of the real-life journey of the monk Xuanzang, or 玄奘 (Xuánzàng), who traveled to India to retrieve Buddhist scriptures during the Tang dynasty.
06 Chinese folk religion and mythology: gods, legends, and local temples
In addition to well-known belief systems such as Buddhism, China has a robust tradition of popular folk religion. Today's residents of the Middle Kingdom are heirs to a rich collection of mythological stories, and the beliefs of folk religion and Chinese mythology often overlap.
What is Chinese folk religion?
Chinese folk religion involves the worship of a variety of local gods and immortals, or 神 (shén). Sometimes these gods are associated with natural phenomena, sometimes they are historical personages, and sometimes they are said to be the early ancestors of their devotees.
In the countryside, worship often takes place in local temples, or 土地庙 (tǔdìmiào), dedicated to village gods. Ancestor veneration remains highly visible in modern customs too, from burning paper money for deceased relatives to festivals like the Ghost Festival.
As with many of China's religious traditions, folk religion is very inclusive. In some places, it is common for people to believe in local gods, Taoist immortals, and the Buddha simultaneously.
Famous Chinese mythology stories and figures
China has accumulated a huge variety of mythological stories over the millennia. Many are fantastical tales that explain the creation of the universe, the origin of the human race, or the roots of important skills like medicine making.
Chinese mythology is not a neat system of internally consistent stories. In many cases, several competing stories are used to explain the same phenomenon.
Many characters in Chinese mythology are also considered deities in Chinese folk religion. There is also a great deal of cross-pollination between Chinese mythology and Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism.
Some of the more well-known figures from Chinese mythology include:
- Pangu (盘古 Pángǔ), creator of the universe
- Nüwa (女娲 Nǚwā), said to have created the human race out of clay
- Shennong (神农 Shénnóng), creator of agriculture, the Chinese calendar, and traditional Chinese medicine
- The legendary ruler Huangdi (黄帝 Huángdì), the Yellow Emperor, thought to be the ancestor of the Chinese people
- The Jade Emperor (玉皇大帝 Yùhuángdàdì), a Taoist deity considered the ruler of heaven in charge of all the other gods
Many traditional Chinese holidays, such as the Qingming, Mid-Autumn, and Qixi festivals, have mythological stories associated with them. Chinese mythology is also full of animal stories, with Chinese dragons playing an especially decisive role.
Mythology even lives on in the Chinese zodiac. Various myths and legends explain the order and personalities of the 12 zodiac animals.
07 Islam, Judaism, and Christianity in ancient China
In addition to the belief systems described above, China has been influenced by a variety of other schools of thought. Some, such as Mohism, or 墨家 (Mòjiā), a belief system based on universal love, were homegrown, while many others arrived from overseas.
Religious diversity on the Maritime Silk Road
For those interested in the influence of foreign religions on ancient China, there is no better place to start than Quanzhou, a port city in Fujian Province. Quanzhou was once the starting point of China's Maritime Silk Road.
During the Middle Ages, which coincided with China's Yuan dynasty (1271–1368 CE), traders from around the world converged on this city, bringing a variety of international religions. The city's multicultural heritage is still visible on the tombstones of its foreign residents, the so-called "Stones of Zayton," which attest to the presence of Islam, Nestorianism (an early branch of Christianity), Hinduism, and Manichaeism.
The Kaifeng Jews: Jewish communities in China
China has been home to a small Jewish community in Kaifeng, Henan Province, since either the Tang (618–907 CE) or the Northern Song dynasty (960–1127 CE). Most members of this ancient community, known as the Kaifeng Jews, have assimilated into the broader Chinese population, but a small yet distinct Jewish community still lives in Kaifeng today.
China also hosted a sizable community of European Jews, or 犹太人 (Yóutàirén), who arrived in Shanghai after fleeing the Nazis in the 1930s and 40s. At its peak, Shanghai's Jewish community numbered some 20,000 people, though it quickly dispersed after the end of World War II.
Early Christian missionaries in China
Christian missionaries, or 传教士 (chuánjiàoshì), most of whom came from Europe, have had an outsized influence on China's more recent history. The early Jesuits, especially Matteo Ricci, are notable for the lengths to which they went to understand Chinese culture and language.
To better communicate with local people, many learned not only classical Chinese but also obscure regional Chinese dialects. They worked to synthesize Chinese and Western belief systems, building bridges between the academic and scientific knowledge of both cultures.
Despite bouts of local opposition, European and American missionaries became increasingly active after the First Opium War (1839–1842 CE). This was especially true in the treaty ports, where missionaries built churches, schools, and hospitals while attempting to convert the wider populace.
Although their ideas were frequently rejected by ordinary people and officials alike, a distorted version of Christianity motivated the instigators of the bloody Taiping Rebellion. Hong Xiuquan, the rebellion's leader, even claimed to be the younger brother of Jesus.
Small Christian communities still exist in China today. Christianity, or 基督教 (Jīdūjiào), is especially popular in Hong Kong and, to a lesser extent, Macau.
The history of Islam in China
China and Islam share a long history. In fact, Islam, or 伊斯兰教 (Yīsīlánjiào), has existed in the country since before the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632 CE.
Although the date of its founding is disputed, the Huaisheng Mosque, or 怀圣寺 (Huáishèngsì), in Guangzhou is traditionally said to have been built in 627 CE. That is only 17 years after the Prophet Muhammad is believed to have begun receiving revelations.
In its early years, Islam was brought to China by Muslim traders arriving by sea and land via the Silk Road. These traders were especially influential during the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368 CE), when they and other foreign merchants were accorded a higher status than the Han Chinese by the Mongol emperors.
Today, several of China's ethnic minority groups are affiliated with Sunni Islam, most notably the Uyghurs and the Hui. Although Chinese Muslims can be found in every major city, most live in Xinjiang, Gansu, Ningxia, and Qinghai.
Ethnic minority religions in China
Although most members of China's ethnic minority groups are affiliated with one of the mainstream religions above, certain groups still practice their own traditional faiths. For example, members of the Daur, Evenki, Derung, Hezhen, and Oroqen groups traditionally practice various forms of Shamanism and Animism.
08 Ancient Chinese religion vocabulary
The following terms will help you understand discussions of religion, philosophy, and belief in both ancient and modern China.
| Chinese | Pinyin | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| 儒家思想 | Confucianism | |
| 孝 | Filial piety | |
| 君子 | Gentleman; the Confucian ideal person | |
| 法家 | Legalism | |
| 道教 | Taoism (Daoism) | |
| 无为 | Wu wei; non-action; effortless action | |
| 佛教 | Buddhism | |
| 四谛 | The Four Noble Truths | |
| 神 | God; deity; spirit | |
| 伊斯兰教 | Islam | |
| 基督教 | Christianity | |
| 犹太人 | Jewish people | |
| 传教士 | Missionary |
09 FAQ
What were the three main religions of ancient China?
The three most influential belief systems were Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism, collectively known as the "three teachings." Legalism, folk religion, and mythology also played important roles in ancient Chinese society.
Is Confucianism a religion or a philosophy?
Confucianism is often described as an ethical and philosophical system rather than a religion, since it focuses on social harmony, family relationships, and education. However, it includes ritual elements, such as ancestor veneration, that give it a religious dimension.
When did Buddhism come to China?
Buddhism arrived in China via the Silk Road during the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE). Over time it blended with Taoist practices to form the distinct tradition of Chinese Buddhism.
Did ancient China have Islam, Judaism, and Christianity?
Yes. Islam arrived through Silk Road and maritime trade before 632 CE, Jewish communities settled in Kaifeng by the Tang or Northern Song dynasty, and early forms of Christianity such as Nestorianism reached China through trading ports like Quanzhou.
What is Chinese folk religion?
Chinese folk religion involves the worship of local gods, immortals, and ancestors, often in village temples. It coexists with Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism, and many people practice elements of several traditions at once.
10 Final thoughts: a religious melting pot
Throughout its long history, China has been profoundly influenced by a variety of religious and philosophical beliefs, some homegrown and some imported. Understanding this kaleidoscopic array of ancient Chinese religions is essential for anyone who wishes to understand modern Chinese culture and society.
A basic grasp of these belief systems will give you a new perspective on everything from Chinese characters to Chinese family relationships to ancient Chinese proverbs and idioms.
Excited to learn even more about Chinese culture and the Chinese language? Come study with CLI, either in Guilin or online!
11 Selected References
- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Confucius, his teachings, and the five constant virtues. View source →
- Encyclopaedia Britannica: overview of Legalism and its role in Chinese statecraft. View source →
- Encyclopaedia Britannica: overview of Daoism, its texts, and core concepts. View source →
- Columbia University, Asia for Educators: Buddhism in China and its blending with native traditions. View source →
- Jewish Virtual Library: the history of the Kaifeng Jewish community. View source →
- Note: Religious history involves contested dates and interpretations that vary by source and tradition. The dates and accounts above reflect commonly cited scholarship.